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Overview of experimental designs for measuring TMS-induced pupil dilations. ( a ) Experiment 1 ( n = 11) and Experiment 2 ( n = 20) followed the same within-participant sham-controlled design. Participants completed 200 blink-free TMS trials. Five blocks of active TMS and five blocks of sham TMS were delivered in a counterbalanced order. Each block in each condition comprised a different TMS intensity, ranging from 80-120% (10% steps) of rMT in random order. To preserve the auditory artefact, during the sham TMS condition, the coil was placed with its side positioned on the hotspot, but the e-field targeted away from the cortex. ( b ) Experiment 3 ( n = 28) had a within-participant pre-post design. Twenty blink-free TMS trials at 120% of rMT were collected before, during, immediately after, and 10-minutes after an inhibitory priming-test tDCS protocol. Notes. rMT: resting motor threshold; tDCS: <t>transcranial</t> direct current <t>stimulation;</t> TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.
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Overview of experimental designs for measuring TMS-induced pupil dilations. ( a ) Experiment 1 ( n = 11) and Experiment 2 ( n = 20) followed the same within-participant sham-controlled design. Participants completed 200 blink-free TMS trials. Five blocks of active TMS and five blocks of sham TMS were delivered in a counterbalanced order. Each block in each condition comprised a different TMS intensity, ranging from 80-120% (10% steps) of rMT in random order. To preserve the auditory artefact, during the sham TMS condition, the coil was placed with its side positioned on the hotspot, but the e-field targeted away from the cortex. ( b ) Experiment 3 ( n = 28) had a within-participant pre-post design. Twenty blink-free TMS trials at 120% of rMT were collected before, during, immediately after, and 10-minutes after an inhibitory priming-test tDCS protocol. Notes. rMT: resting motor threshold; tDCS: transcranial direct current stimulation; TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Journal: bioRxiv

Article Title: Transcranial magnetic stimulation induced pupil dilations can serve as a cortical excitability measure

doi: 10.1101/2025.08.02.668303

Figure Lengend Snippet: Overview of experimental designs for measuring TMS-induced pupil dilations. ( a ) Experiment 1 ( n = 11) and Experiment 2 ( n = 20) followed the same within-participant sham-controlled design. Participants completed 200 blink-free TMS trials. Five blocks of active TMS and five blocks of sham TMS were delivered in a counterbalanced order. Each block in each condition comprised a different TMS intensity, ranging from 80-120% (10% steps) of rMT in random order. To preserve the auditory artefact, during the sham TMS condition, the coil was placed with its side positioned on the hotspot, but the e-field targeted away from the cortex. ( b ) Experiment 3 ( n = 28) had a within-participant pre-post design. Twenty blink-free TMS trials at 120% of rMT were collected before, during, immediately after, and 10-minutes after an inhibitory priming-test tDCS protocol. Notes. rMT: resting motor threshold; tDCS: transcranial direct current stimulation; TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Article Snippet: In addition, a battery powered remote mini-CT (Soterix Medical Inc, Woodbridge, USA) transcranial electric stimulation device was used to deliver tDCS.

Techniques: Blocking Assay

Results from Experiment 1. ( a ) Group averaged (n = 11) pupil traces relevant to the TMS pulse. ( b ) Active and sham TMS averaged peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. ( c ) Individual active versus sham TMS peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. Notes. Intensity is expressed as a percentage of the resting motor threshold. Pupil traces are smoothed with a Gaussian filter (σ = 1.5) for visualisation purposes only. Error bars depict standard error. TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Journal: bioRxiv

Article Title: Transcranial magnetic stimulation induced pupil dilations can serve as a cortical excitability measure

doi: 10.1101/2025.08.02.668303

Figure Lengend Snippet: Results from Experiment 1. ( a ) Group averaged (n = 11) pupil traces relevant to the TMS pulse. ( b ) Active and sham TMS averaged peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. ( c ) Individual active versus sham TMS peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. Notes. Intensity is expressed as a percentage of the resting motor threshold. Pupil traces are smoothed with a Gaussian filter (σ = 1.5) for visualisation purposes only. Error bars depict standard error. TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Article Snippet: In addition, a battery powered remote mini-CT (Soterix Medical Inc, Woodbridge, USA) transcranial electric stimulation device was used to deliver tDCS.

Techniques:

Results from primary analyses in Experiment 2. ( a ) Group averaged (n = 20) pupil traces relevant to the TMS pulse. ( b ) Active and sham TMS averaged peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. ( c ) Individual active versus sham TMS peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. ( d ) Comparisons between left versus right pupil in the active TMS condition. ( e ) Pupil size comparisons following within-participant median split grouping of each condition’s MEP data (Low MEP vs High MEP bin). Notes. Intensity is expressed as a percentage of the resting motor threshold. Pupil traces are smoothed with a Gaussian filter (σ = 1.5) for visualisation purposes only. Error bars depict standard error. MEP: motor evoked potential; TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Journal: bioRxiv

Article Title: Transcranial magnetic stimulation induced pupil dilations can serve as a cortical excitability measure

doi: 10.1101/2025.08.02.668303

Figure Lengend Snippet: Results from primary analyses in Experiment 2. ( a ) Group averaged (n = 20) pupil traces relevant to the TMS pulse. ( b ) Active and sham TMS averaged peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. ( c ) Individual active versus sham TMS peak pupil dilations per intensity condition. ( d ) Comparisons between left versus right pupil in the active TMS condition. ( e ) Pupil size comparisons following within-participant median split grouping of each condition’s MEP data (Low MEP vs High MEP bin). Notes. Intensity is expressed as a percentage of the resting motor threshold. Pupil traces are smoothed with a Gaussian filter (σ = 1.5) for visualisation purposes only. Error bars depict standard error. MEP: motor evoked potential; TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Article Snippet: In addition, a battery powered remote mini-CT (Soterix Medical Inc, Woodbridge, USA) transcranial electric stimulation device was used to deliver tDCS.

Techniques:

Exploratory analyses investigating the relationship between TMS induced MEPs and TMS-induced pupil dilations. (a) Correlations of MEPs (red) and peak pupil dilations (blue) with TMS intensity. (b) Absence of correlation between MEPs and peak pupil dilations. (c) Psychophysical logistic curve of MEP (red) and peak pupil (blue) data as a function of TMS intensity. Notes. Intensity is expressed as a percentage of the resting motor threshold. Error bars depict standard error. MEP: motor evoked potential; TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Journal: bioRxiv

Article Title: Transcranial magnetic stimulation induced pupil dilations can serve as a cortical excitability measure

doi: 10.1101/2025.08.02.668303

Figure Lengend Snippet: Exploratory analyses investigating the relationship between TMS induced MEPs and TMS-induced pupil dilations. (a) Correlations of MEPs (red) and peak pupil dilations (blue) with TMS intensity. (b) Absence of correlation between MEPs and peak pupil dilations. (c) Psychophysical logistic curve of MEP (red) and peak pupil (blue) data as a function of TMS intensity. Notes. Intensity is expressed as a percentage of the resting motor threshold. Error bars depict standard error. MEP: motor evoked potential; TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Article Snippet: In addition, a battery powered remote mini-CT (Soterix Medical Inc, Woodbridge, USA) transcranial electric stimulation device was used to deliver tDCS.

Techniques:

Results of Experiment 3. (a) MEP traces before, during, immediately after, and 10 minutes after the induction of a priming-test tDCS inhibitory protocol. (b) Difference plots comparing baseline MEP peak-to-peak amplitudes with those immediately after and 10 minutes after tDCS. (c) Group averaged (n = 28) pupil traces relevant to the TMS pulse, before, during, immediately after, and 10 minutes after the induction of a priming-test tDCS inhibitory protocol. (d) Difference plots comparing baseline peak TMS-induced pupil dilation with those immediately after and 10 minutes after tDCS. Notes. MEP: motor evoked potential; tDCS: transcranial direct current stimulation. TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Journal: bioRxiv

Article Title: Transcranial magnetic stimulation induced pupil dilations can serve as a cortical excitability measure

doi: 10.1101/2025.08.02.668303

Figure Lengend Snippet: Results of Experiment 3. (a) MEP traces before, during, immediately after, and 10 minutes after the induction of a priming-test tDCS inhibitory protocol. (b) Difference plots comparing baseline MEP peak-to-peak amplitudes with those immediately after and 10 minutes after tDCS. (c) Group averaged (n = 28) pupil traces relevant to the TMS pulse, before, during, immediately after, and 10 minutes after the induction of a priming-test tDCS inhibitory protocol. (d) Difference plots comparing baseline peak TMS-induced pupil dilation with those immediately after and 10 minutes after tDCS. Notes. MEP: motor evoked potential; tDCS: transcranial direct current stimulation. TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Article Snippet: In addition, a battery powered remote mini-CT (Soterix Medical Inc, Woodbridge, USA) transcranial electric stimulation device was used to deliver tDCS.

Techniques: